Wireless Communication
The rising adoption of interconnected internet-enabled devices in smart homes is creating new attack surfaces that threaten the security, privacy, and safety of homeowners. According to industry analysis, the global market for smart home devices including connected security cameras, smart thermostats, voice assistants, and smart appliances is expected to grow at a compound annual rate…
Ensuring Safety Through Isolation Establishing Physical Separation Barriers Metallic and non-metallic physical barriers should encapsulate test equipment and live components to prevent user contact. Fiberglass, polycarbonate, sheet metal or wire mesh cages visually demarcate hazardous areas while blocking contact with enclosed elements. Interlocked gates halt testing upon breach yet allow observation through safety glass. Robust…
Purpose of Buffer Circuits with 555 Timers The 555 timer integrated circuit is a popular and versatile chip used in many electronic circuits for generating timed pulses and oscillation signals. However, the inputs and outputs of the 555 timer can be susceptible to voltage spikes, noise, and loading effects when interfaced directly with other components….
The Problem: High Current Draw of 555 Timers The 555 timer integrated circuit is one of the most ubiquitous chips used by hobbyists and engineers alike for generating pulses, timing events, and creating oscillators. However its functionality comes at a cost – the 555 can draw over 3 mA when operating continuously resulting in high…
Real-World Op-Amp Limitations Input Offset Voltage The input offset voltage is the differential voltage that must be applied between the input terminals of the operational amplifier to make the output voltage equal to zero. In an ideal op-amp, this offset voltage is zero. However, real-world op-amps exhibit a small but nonzero input offset voltage typically…
Op-amps or operational amplifiers are versatile integrated circuits that can be configured to perform a wide variety of analog processing functions. A key to properly operating op-amps in circuits is to understand how current flows into and out of the device. Input Bias Currents and Input Offset Currents All op-amps draw a small bias current…
What is the Op-Amp Virtual Ground? The op-amp virtual ground refers to the voltage potential at the inverting input terminal of an operational amplifier circuit appearing to be at the same level or “grounded” as the non-inverting input terminal. This is due to the high gain of the op-amp forcing the inverting and non-inverting inputs…
Understanding Key Specifications When reviewing a component datasheet, one of the most important areas to analyze closely are the key electrical and environmental specifications. These parameters give engineers critical information needed to properly incorporate the part into a design and ensure reliable performance. Operating Temperature Range The operating temperature range indicates the minimum and maximum…
The early effect in bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) refers to the variation in the base-emitter voltage (Vbe) required to achieve a given collector current as the collector-base voltage (Vcb) changes. This occurs because the width of the depletion region in the base-collector junction is dependent on Vcb. As Vcb increases, the depletion width increases, effectively…
The Problem: Interfacing Incompatible Voltage Levels Bipolar signals originating from various sources often need to interface with downstream circuitry and data acquisition systems operating at different voltage levels. Directly connecting bipolar signal sources to incompatible voltage domains risks permanent damage to expensive system components. Therefore, a safe and reliable voltage translation method is required. For…
